Elizabeth Johnson-Revisonist Method of Theology free essay sample

Elizabeth Johnson is perhaps one of the most preeminent Catholic theologians of the new millennium. The fact that she is a woman religious who writes from a feminist perspective adds to her unique and distinguished career. This paper will examine the revisionist method espoused by Elizabeth Johnson, in an effort to understand her approach to Christian feminism. An overview of revisionist methodology will be presented so as to understand the framework in which Johnson works. References to some of Johnson! s writings will then be presented in an effort to illustrate her revisionist method. Finally a survey of various critics will then be presented in an effort to determine what has made her method, approach and style groundbreaking in the area of feminist theology. In its simplest form, revisionist methodology involves looking back at one! s tradition in an effort to gain new insights into the situation at hand or to uncover what has been lost. We will write a custom essay sample on Elizabeth Johnson-Revisonist Method of Theology or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In a more elaborate definition, David Tracey states that, †In its briefest expression, the revisionist model holds that a contemporary fundamental Christian theology can best be described as philosophical reflection upon meanings present in common human experience and language, and upon the meanings present in the Christian fact. †1 Tracy then outlines five theses that are intended to explicate this particular model: The first thesis defends the proposition that there are two sources for theology, common human experience and language, and Christian texts. The second thesis argues for the necessity of correlating the results of the investigations of these two sources. The third and fourth theses attempt to specify the most helpful methods of investigation employed for studying these two sources 1 David Tracy, Blessed Rage for Order: The New Pluralism in Theology (New York: The Seabury Press, 1975) 43. 1 (methods include phenomenology of religious dimension for human experience and language and historical and hermeneutical investigations for Christian texts). The fifth and final thesis further specifies the final mode of critical correlation of these investigations as an explicitly metaphysically and transcendental one. 2 If we apply the aforementioned description to our area of interest, then revisionist Christian feminism can be seen as seeking,†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦to mutually and critically correlate the central and liberating themes of biblical and Christian tradition with the experience of women in the contemporary situation. 3 In one of her most noted works, She Who Is, Johnson captures the essence of her revisionist Christian feminism in the metaphor of a braided footbridge,†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦between the ledges of classical and feminist Christian tradition. Throwing a hermeneutical span from side to side may enable some to cross over to the paradigm of women! s coequal humanity without leaving behind all the riches of the tradition that had been their intellectual and spiritual home. †4 It clear already from this brief introduction, that Johnson employs the revisionist model of theology. Tradition is key to anyone employing the revisionist model and Johnson is no exception to this. Tradition is important for Johnson, but not necessarily in the sense that one should mindlessly adhere to every aspect of what we inherit. On the other hand, we cannot put our heads the sand and deny the existence of tradition or avoid learning about it. We are all part of a tradition and it becomes part of our shared history and allows us ,†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦to see far thanks to the stature of those who have handed on the 2 3 Tracy, Blessed Rage for Order: The New Pluralism in Theology , 43. Shannon Schrein, Quilting and Braiding: The Feminist Christologies of Sallie McFague and Elizabeth Johnson in Conversation (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1998) 2. 4 Elizabeth Johnson, She Who Is: The Mystery of God in Feminist Theological Discourse (New York: Crossroad Publishing, 1992) 12. 2 tradition to us. †5 Johnson is respectful of tradition, with the understanding that it often needs to be analyzed to determine if is contributing to pain and suffering. In her book, Consider Jesus, the emphasis is not just on tradition, but on a â€Å"living tradition†.

An Informative Essay Sample PDF The Grade

An Informative Essay Sample PDF The GradeInformative essays are a critical element in college admissions, as they often play a major role in admissions decisions for most universities. These essays are often filled with a multitude of facts and details, and it is often difficult to be concise when covering a wide range of topics in such a way. Fortunately, there are ways to ensure that your college application essays are well written and make the most of your time.First, it is important to realize that your essay is not all that important. As a matter of fact, your personal statement is going to have far more weight in college admissions. This is because your personal statement is going to provide insight into who you are as a person and what makes you a good candidate for a particular school. College admissions officers want to know everything that they can about you as a person and know that your personal essay will give them insight on who you are and what it is about you that mak es you a good match for their school.The second crucial part to writing an effective essay is to keep it simple. College admissions officers want to get right to the point and focus on the information that they need to know. Just as you might want to spend more time on your resume, do not spend too much time or effort on your essay.You should try to make your topic matter-driven, rather than an argument based on any form of bias or ideology, such as that of a certain school's needs. When writing your essay, keep it focused on the reasons why you would like to attend that school and remember that you are not trying to convince anyone to accept you. It is your opinion, and it is perfectly valid to have an opinion that you believe is in line with a school's need.The last step in writing an essay that gets attention is to use your best writing skills. If you are struggling with writing your essay, perhaps it is time to hire an editor or copy editor. Editors and copy editors are very fam iliar with what it takes to get the most attention from college admissions officers and are often able to turn a rough draft into a polished piece of work.Your writing should be objective and respectful, but at the same time, it should not be abrasive, nor should it deviate from the truth. In addition, it should be very clear to admissions officers that you were merely writing a brief summary and cannot disclose any specifics about yourself or the school. Try to find the balance between being honest and being brief, which will help you to be clearly read.Finally, make sure that your college admissions letter does not focus on your academic skills, but rather your strengths and potentials. Most college admissions officers want to see the whole picture, and will read more at the top rather than skim over the entire letter. In addition, college admissions officers have a tendency to take note of strong academics and are likely to ask questions of you in order to better understand your character and goals for college.As you can see, it is very easy to learn to craft a well-written, educational essay, which has a good chance of getting you accepted into a very competitive college. Remember, you want to write it, not the other way around, so do not be afraid to take some time to make sure you are writing it well.

Establishing customer need Essay Example

Establishing customer need Essay A consumer requires goods and services of all types for personal as well as household usage. Sometimes referred to as customers, each consumer is something of an enigma to marketers. How does he or she perceive products, brands, stores or even entire organisations? How are individuals product choice made? Is customer loyalty attainable? A trend of consumer behaviour has emerged in recent years to help Virgin Trains better understand critically important issues such as these. Targeting Virgin Train 1st Class traveller can be divided into two different segments. These segments are made up of business clients and consumers from social classes A, B and C1. Keynotes (2002), state that the average number of trips per week on national rail for social class A-C1 is considerably higher than that of social classes D E. Also, the age groups that use the national rail most frequently are 20-34, which are those from an employed status. We will write a custom essay sample on Establishing customer need specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Establishing customer need specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Establishing customer need specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer However, Virgin Trains have decided to target the first class business traveller. Tapp (2000, p16) states that most airlines are driven by the 80/20 rule which could also be applied to the rail sector. The rule is that twenty percent of customers are from the business sector contributing to eighty percent of its profits. This suggests that it may be more profitable for Virgin Trains to target the business traveller. An existing database holds information about companies who have previously booked first class seats on Virgin Trains. This will be used as a way of targeting existing customers and further lists will be bought from another source. Segmentation In order to maximise the effectiveness of the marketing strategy it is essential to segment, especially in terms of geographic location. It is important that the companies and business people targeted are geographically located along Virgin Train routes, as there is no point in communicating to companies who do not have easy access to Virgin Trains. Market research Before any service can be properly marketed Virgin Trains must know a great deal about: * The market it is to be operated in * The demand for the service itself * The needs of the users for design, quality, colour, etc. * The best media to advertise the service in * The price which people are prepared to pay for the service. Most of this information is obtained by specialist marketing people who arrange for two types of research to be carried out: 1. Secondary Research which involves finding out what has been written already about the service and the market for it. 2. Primary Research which is the testing of the service ideas by asking people what they think of it and by looking at the competition (how good are competitive services and how much is being charged for them). Secondary research is highly skilled work and requires patience and the ability to know which facts are useful and which are not. Primary research on the other hand, requires skill in writing questionnaires and in arranging samples of the public to try out the product. The scope of marketing and market research is very broad. In fact almost every aspect of the production, promotion, sales life of a service is scrutinised at some point for one particular purpose or another. Primary Research Surveys A survey usually involves asking questions of respondents people or organisations who reply to the questions asked. Virgin Trains, for instance, used a survey to find out about the quality of service and preferences of consumers. The survey showed that most of the people said the quality of service was very good. Surveys can only be useful for market research purposes if the questions asked are appropriate. For instance, sometimes it is important to ask closed questions. These are questions which have a definite answer. An example would be: how may train journeys have you had last week?. Other times, the market researcher might want to find out about opinions and allow the respondent to develop an answer. It is best then to ask open questions, which have many possible answers. For instance, why do you like this service? is an open question. Sampling A survey cannot ask every customer for his or her opinion. Only a fraction or sample of customers can be surveyed. To be useful, the sample chosen must be representative of all customers (the population). In a random sample, every potential respondent has an equal chance of being chosen. Random numbers can be used to do this or it can be done by picking people out of a hat. It is often quite difficult to construct a truly random sample. So a cheaper and quicker method is to use a systematic sample. This is where, say, every 100th or 1000th person on a list like a telephone directory or the electoral register is chosen. A systematic sample is not truly random though and therefore the results may be less reliable. In a quota sample, the sample is broken down. This is a far cheaper method than random sampling. Below is a sample of the questionnaire I used for my primary research. I did most of my questionnaire around train and tube station like Sudbury hill station. Questionnaire This questionnaire will be asking questions to you about the rail industry and what you think about the situation it is in. *Please circle the appropriate answer Q1.Have you ever travelled by train? If not go to question 4. Yes No Q2. What was your main reason for commuting? Work Pleasure Hobby/Sport Education Other Q3. How would you rate your train service? Very bad bad average good very good Q3. Would you pay more for a better service? Yes No Q4. Which of the following do you think will improve rail services? More funding Extra staff Improve catering Cleaner carriages Comfortable seating Other______________ Q5. Should the rail industry be taken back into Government ownership? Yes No Q4. Which of the following do you feel is safer to travel on? Rail Car Thank you for answering these questions. Results of Questionnaire My questionnaire received a number of votes supporting the re-nationalisation of the railways. A lot of people felt that the only real incentive for Railtrack and the operating companies like Virgin Trains is to make more profit for their shareholders. They felt Railways should be seen as part of the public infrastructure and returned to public ownership. One person said they would be prepared to pay more if the railways were publicly owned, but not to private companies just to add to their profits. Recent reports from the BBC News online suggest that it will be unbelievably expensive to re-nationalise the railways and will give less control to the government but they would have more direct control and influence over the polices and practices. My questionnaire revealed that 58% of people are willing to spend a little more if it will guarantee them a better service. Secondary research Public transport According to social trends 2000, the number of rail journeys has increased since 1981-82, and is now approaching the levels of the late 1950s. Because of the great increase in car travel, however, rail has a much smaller share of total travel in the 1950s. Below is a graph showing the percentages of each mode of passenger transport. Source: department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions Rail Journey Below is a graph showing the number of rail journeys made by each operator during 1981-1999. Source: department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions A significant development in recent years has been the increase in the number of rail operators. Following the privatisation in 1996, passenger rail services on the national network are provided by 25 franchise holders which lease rolling stock and pay access charges to Railtrack plc for use of the track. Virgin Trains are one of those franchise holder and they regulated by the Franchising Director of the Shadow Strategic Rail Authority (SSRA), which monitors their performance and controls fares. Virgin Trains runs on the National Rail line, Passenger traffic on this line rose by three per cent in 2001-01, when some 957 million passenger journeys were made (table above). This is the highest number of passenger journeys since 1962, but there had been more than a billion rail passenger journeys a year in 1961 and before. The amount of distanced travelled are much higher than the early 1960s, which suggests that people are using the railways for longer journeys than previously. This stat is good for Virgin Trains as they provide a long distance travel service to places like London, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool and Glasgow. Rail complaints Following the Hatfield crash in October 2000, which the Health and Safety Executive believe was due to a fractured rail, temporary speed restrictions (TSRs) were imposed by Railtrack on around one thousand sites throughout the national rail network. Due to these restrictions Virgin Trains had to issue new timetables for its services, and these, coupled with severe flooding in some areas, had an adverse affect on service timelines. For example, between July and September 2000, 80 per cent of long distance trains arrived on time (within 10 minutes of advertised time); between October and December, this figure fell to 48 per cent. Below shows the percentage and types of complaints received. Source: Strategic Rail Authority These problems contributed to a sharp increase in complaints made to the Train Operating Companies (TOCS), which run trains on Great Britains rail system. Between the fourth quarter of 1999-00 and the fourth quarter of 2000-01, the rate of complaints received per 100,000 passenger journeys rose by 54 per cent. Complaints about train service performance, although the most common type of complaint increased by only 2 per cent from 1998 to 2001.

Perceptions Of Islam Essays - Women In Islam, Islam, Sharia

Perceptions Of Islam Essays - Women In Islam, Islam, Sharia Perceptions Of Islam How the West Perceives Islam and what Mazrui thinks is the Reality Most Westerners tend to view the Islamic societies as somewhat backward in their beliefs according to Mazrui. Commonly Westerners believe that this is due to the oppressed religious beliefs of Islamic's. They also believe that the Islamic society is governed inhumanely in comparison to the enlightened, well-rounded democracy of the Western world. However the measurement of cultural differences between the West and Islam is somewhat complex, and the differences between the two is narrower than assumed by most Western beliefs. Islam is not considered just a religion, and most certainly is not just a fundamentalist political movement but is a civilization and a way of life that varies from one Muslim country to another. The Westerners seem fail to recognize how their own societies have failed to live up to their liberal mythology. Many aspects of Islamic culture that Westerners regard as medieval may even have prevailed in their own culture until fairly recently. In most cases, Islamic societies are only a few decades behind in the socially and technologically advanced Westerners. The main question that we must ask ourselves is what path leads to the highest quality of life for the average citizen without the worry of being abused in the process. According to Mazrui, Islamic values deserve serious consideration because the West doesnt provide the answers to all the questions being asked. Many Westerners regard Muslim societies as being unenlightened when it comes to the rights of women, and it is true that the question regarding women is still troublesome in most Muslim countries. The rules regarding the Islamic beliefs on sexual modesty have often resulted in excessive segregation of the sexes in public places, sometimes bringing about questionable differences regarding womens rights. However, Muslim women have always been permitted to own property where the British women where not allowed to do so until 1870. Islamic laws have also allowed the inheritance to bot h genders equally while in many Western cultures women could not inherit anything if there were sons in the family. The United States, which is the largest most influential Western nation, has yet to nominate a female into the presidential office where Muslims have had two women Prime ministers. Although Muslims have moved towards female empowerment, they are still far behind in female liberation. The sources and methods of censorship may differ but censorship is just a fact of life in Western societies as it is in the Muslim world. Censorship is often crudely, imposed by governments, mullahs and imams, and recently, militant Islamic movements. However, the Censorship in the West, is more polished and decentralized. The practitioners in the West are financial backers of the cultural activity and entertainment advertisers that buy time on commercial television. In regards to the division of church and state and the protection of minority religions through secularism in the West, Islam has tried to protect those religions through ecumenicalism throughout its history. One conclusion that can be drawn from this is that Westerners are less well rounded in their political behavior than they believe. The other conclusion is that Muslim societies historically have been more ecumenical, and are therefore more humane, than the Western critics have come to recognize. However, the Islamic ecumenicalism has protected religious minorities more effectively than the Westerners. Over all the Western liberal democracy has enabled societies to enjoy the openness of its governments accountability through the participation of its citizens along with a high economic productivity. However, Mazrui points out that Western pluralism has also been the breeding ground for racism, fascism, exploitation, and genocide. Mazrui believes that if history is to end in arrival at the ultimate political order, it will require more than the Western teachings on how to maximize the best in human nature. Mazrui also believes that mankind must also be willing to address the Islamic views on how to check the worst in human nature-from alcoholism to racism, materialism to Nazism, drug addiction to Marxism as the opiate of the intellectuals. Over all Mazrui feels that one must distinguish between democratic principles and humane principles. Some humane principles that need to be distinguished inclu de stabilizing the

Communist Manifesto, Descriptions and Prescriptions Essay

Communist Manifesto, Descriptions and Prescriptions - Essay Example It serves as a framework on how to develop what is theory into reality. The paper divulges the current problems of society and then offers what must be done in order to achieve its common goal which in one word can only be described as equality. The Communist Manifesto begins with painting a picture of the struggle of proletarians throughout history. The division of population is always leaning toward various social classes which are basically hierarchical. This is divided into the two most distinct classes, the Bourgeoisie and Proletariat. Throughout time the bourgeoisie has developed leaving behind all other class through leaps and bounds. This tremendous growth is not only economic but a political rise as well. â€Å"The executive of the modern State is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie† (Marx, p.3). This statement proves that the rich has taken over even the government and its officials do according to their bidding as opposed of for the welfare of the general public. Free trade was equated to exploitation according to Marx. Money became the moving power in relations. The discourse then moved further into detail with the problems of the current society and how this is aimed to be solved by communism. It starts with the struggle of the working class which has sunk deeper into social status by the modern industry as he is further left into oblivion by depreciated value as he is replaced by machines which provided for faster and more cost-efficient production for profit by the wealthy. Marx describes them as a commodity who had only then found their strength in numbers by organizing themselves into groups such as a union in order to upheld their interests and protect their wage from greedy capitalists. â€Å"These labourers, who must sell themselves piece-meal, are a commodity, like every other article of commerce, and are consequently exposed to all the vicissitudes of competition, to all the fluctuations of the market† (Marx, p.6). The answer to this is that there is essentially no difference between the working man and a communist. When proletarians form into a class and then into a party it becomes a communist party which is revolutionary in character when it calls for real change. The Communists are the working class, the only differences lies in the variation among nations with the primary interests that they pursue and the different stages of development they must venture into to protect their movement. This is a direct call upon the working class who are contemplating the advantages of communism. In an equation Marx provides the similar goals of a Communist to that of proletarian parties, first is their establishment into a class, then the need to dethrone the bourgeoisie in their power and finally, their own political take-over to implement a communist rule. Property is another source of discontent among the people. The author goes into a detailed account of the historical cha nges in property relation, specifically the weight of the feudal system that proliferated for a long time. The most common conception among the goals of communism is the absolute abolition of property as a means to achieve communal life in a global perspective. This is dispelled by stating that what it seeks to abolish is bourgeois property and not all property. But difference does it really contain? Property that was acquired through the exploitation of others in the process falls under this category. A capitalist is not limited to

Freedom and Human Rights in Orwells 1984 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Freedom and Human Rights in Orwells 1984 - Essay Example The issues of freedom and human rights are discussed further on. A process of individual’s degradation in the face of oppression and intimidation is shown by Orwell. It is interesting to trace individual’s transformation from an independent citizen to a dependant person oppressed by a perverted socialism. A novel’s background Socialism by itself is not destructive. It is more relevant to look at its rulers and discuss their history. In accordance with Marx, a great philosopher of socialism: â€Å"revolutionary violence was inevitable since those in power will never voluntarily relinquish their position, and he viewed the future communist society as the redemption of that nightmare of history that we have had hitherto† (Scaliger, 2007). Another position is expressed by Orwell. Socialists showed violence to fight against violence; an example of the Soviet Union shows to us that the society based on violence would lead to freedom opposition. Therefore, it is necessary to develop human rights protection laws and take control over freedom achievement in the society. A political form of Socialism is not bad in its essence. It is better to reach socialism by democratic means and not through violence. Orwell shows that working people have their own ethical concerns creating a bridge for decency development under socialism (Deery, 2005). Consequently, Orwell is positioned as an ethical socialist, who is focused on the basic moral values of working people and he does not want that people would lose them. Social justice for Orwell can be reached in case liberty, equality and fraternity are preserved. It is interesting to discuss external factors influencing on conceptual representation of freedom by Orwell (Deery, 2005). In accordance with Marx and Engels, freedom is an integrative part of self-determination. In reality, freedom has a broader meaning; it should be clarified that freedom â€Å"means being in charge for one’s own life and being able to reveal the highest potential of an individual† (Scaliger, 2007). In this utopian novel, Orwell created a satire of an ideal type of socialism. Stalinist practices and Trotsky’s practices provided Orwell with fruitful information about the cruel and violent regime, degrading human souls. The world order reinvented by Orw ell is an interesting fantasy of a writer: â€Å"His narrative gifts having flowered during the ugliest days of Stalinism and soared at a time when such ideas were in the air, he thereupon extrapolated Stalin's system and Burnham's schemes--worldwide and into eternity† (Deery, 2005). Freedom in the novel An interesting vision of freedom provided by Orwell is appealing for contemporaries as well: â€Å"Freedom is the freedom to say that two plus two make four" (Orwell, p. 69). The Party is intimidated by the emergence of extra-linguistic reality and by the fact that some global issues may be intimidating for the whole society. It is easier and more convenient for the Big Brother to reshape the minds of his people, take away a hope from them and transform their skills into a motive force for socialism. For Winston, the Party is bad, because â€Å"its infallibility, or freedom from the strictures of falsifiability, is buttressed by its ability to impose, through Foucauldian di sciplinary techniques, a radically groundless regime of purely local and discontinuous epistemes† (Orwell, p. 45). We can see that there is an internal and external fight for freedom among the main characters of Orwell’

Card Skimming Essay Example for Free

Card Skimming Essay Credit Card Fraud is one of the biggest threats to business establishments today. Originally, credit cards simply carried raised numbers that were transferred to a carbon copy with a card-swiping machine. The merchant simply accepted any card presented. Spending limits and printed lists of lost/stolen cards were ineffective in preventing fraud and other financial losses. Merchants were required to telephone a transaction authorization center to get pre-approval of the transaction. The volume of telephone traffic grew too great, and more automated authorization systems allowed faster, easier, and verified transactions. Magnetic stripes on the backs of these payment cards started to appear and that allowed computers to be used at both ends of the call. The raised letters and numbers on the plastic cards are now rarely used or even read. This then gave rise to â€Å"skimming† devices that could be used by some unscrupulous persons to electronically scan and save the information from many customers cards. Techniques such as skimming, in which criminals capture card information and personal-identification numbers, have existed for years, often on a small scale. A growing security concern with Skimming devices is the possible release of the user’s personal information or location to unauthorized parties. So, what is now needed is a way to increase the security of payment card use at merchant locations. Problem Statement Credit Card Fraud poses one of the greatest risks to businesses nowadays. As card business transactions increase, so too do frauds. According to the Jamaica Observer dated March 2010 â€Å"The National Commercial Bank (NCB) yesterday revealed that it lost more than J$100 million to credit card fraud last year, put merchants on guard against what it said was a rising problem†. Most cases of counterfeit fraud involve skimming. The fraudulent activity on a card affects everybody, i.e., the cardholder, the merchant, the acquirer as well as the issuer (bank). Several methods have been proposed in order to stop this. One such method adopted is a method of chips  built into the card adding a layer of protection. The good news is that technology for preventing credit card frauds is improving with the passage of time. Purpose Statement This paper will describe the development of a system to provide real time detection of fraud attempt so as to increase the security payment of credit cards use at merchant POS locations. Research Questions What is credit card fraud? What is skimming? How are cards skimmed and reproduced? What are the implications of credit card fraud? Can this type of fraud be prevented? If so, how can this type of fraud be prevented? Significance About J$245.1 million has been lost to credit card fraud in Jamaica for 2009 (Jamaica Observer). In 2010 Europe, which has faced a bigger problem than the U.S.A saw card-skimming attacks jump 24% in the first six months to 5,743, the largest six-month number since data gathering began in 2004, according to the European ATM Security Team, a non-profit group. Consumers face trouble trying to get fraudulent charges reversed, merchants lose the cost of the products sold have to pay chargeback fees and fear from the risk of having their merchant account closed and loss of reputation. The issuers and acquirers also have to make huge investments in preventing frauds by deploying sophisticated IT systems for detection of fraudulent transactions. They also face financial and product losses, fines, loss of reputation and possibly loss of license if not compliant to credit card standards. This research study could provide information on how to help maintain the cost of fraud and losses due to f raud and help to put this at a manageable level. It will help acquirers and issuers to equip themselves with a counterattack to possible threats and that can help protect the user and the merchant from fraud. Definition of Terms Credit Card Fraud is defined as when an individual uses another individuals’ credit card for personal reasons while the owner of the card and the card issuer are not aware of the fact that the card is being used. Card Skimming is a process where genuine data on a card’s magnetic stripe is electronically copied onto another. References List http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business/NCB-puts-customers-on-credit-card-guard_7505969http://online.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703688704575621122308129984http://quotes.wsj.com/IT